Esse est percipi (To be is to be perceived). Existence is experience based. According to
Burkeley something being in its existence means the subject of its experience that is its
being visible.
There cannot be any existence without the soul. Nothing can be said about existence of the
goods unless there is no direct experience of theirs. External things ( such as apple, desk,
chair, etc) are the internal ideans of our mind. Burkeley says, ‘ something is fragrant means it
has been smelt. There a sound means it has been heard. There a form or color means it is a
subject of touch or visual experience. Here what Burkeley means to say is the objects being
true means their being visible (the subject of experience). Thus any object or attribute can
not be true without its being a subject of experience. Burkeley call this belief ‘Esse est
percipi’ (To be is to be perceived) in its formulized form.
According to Burkeley, there is indistinguishable relation between the existence of an object
and its visibility or perceptibility. It is impossible that anything exists and we fail to experience
it. Of course, when one fails to perceive any object then other people (souls) keep perceiving
it. If even other people are not perceiving the object then it is always in experience of God. In
fact, together with accepting the existence of the soul, Burkeley also accepts the existence of
God and other souls.
Burkeley has used ‘Esse est percipi’ (To be is to be perceived) in its very broad meaning.
Visibility that is perception is not confined to the present only. It can be applied in the experi-
-ences of past and future also besides the present.
David Hume
Hume took the concept of empiricism at its peak. Hume was a friend of Rousseau. When
Rousseau was exiled from France then Hume liberally helped him in England. During the last
phase of his life Hume worked as a secretary of the ambassodor for some time. Moreover,
he had been an assitant minister in Scotland. Hume died in 1776.
Impression and Idea
Sensations obtained through external sense organs are called ‘impressions’ by Hume. Impres-
Philosophy – (11)
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-sion is associated with more vivacious and clearer experiences. For example the impression
is the effect of experiences in mind of seeing, sniffing, touching, loving and loathing an object.
On the contrary the ideas are more vague, weaker and less apparent than the impressions. Hence,
the ideas are reflections of the impressions. When we directly experience cold, heat, pleasure-
pain, beauty, experience, etc, then it is called the impression, but when we remember these very
experiences of impressions, then their reflections imprinted in our minds are called the ideas.
Rejection of Soul
According to Hume, there cannot be a direct perception of unknown physical element, then
how can there be direct knowledge of the soul. Some philosophers claim that they have living
perception of the soul every moment, or they have direct perception of the existence of soul.
According to Hume, all these beliefs are illusive and conservative. In this regard, the following
quote of Hume is well known –
‘ Whenever I delve deep to have experience of this (so called) soul, I am left to myself getting
hit by some or the other impression or idea. These sensations or ideas are related to heat –
cold, light – shadow, love – hate etc.’ Thus, Hume says that the soul is nothing more than the
flow of impressions and ideas or changing tendencies of the mind.
Rejection of God :
According to Hume, God cannot be known on the basis of experience. Though severl people
have their faith in God, yet the existence of so called God is not a subject of experience be
cause nothing can be displayed about God’s form, attributes and purpose on the basis of expe-
-riences. As a matter of the fact, human intellect is unable to answer the problems related to
God.
Hume has revoked the concepts of God based on existence, causation or creation and analogical
inference.
Skepticism :
Traditionally a skeptic has been identified as a person who refuses to know anything as
unsuspicious or certain manner. According to the radical skepticism, the knowledge of any
object is impossible. Historically, Gorgias and Protagorus can be regarded as the presursors of
the skepticism. Though a skeptic can participate in a logical argument, yet he does not believe
any principle to be logically certain. The way logics can be given in favor of a principle, they
can be given against it too.
In the world of philosophy, Hume’s skepticism is regarded as a logical consequence of the
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empiricism. If the sense perception is accepted as the only source of knowledge, then it will be
impossible to have knowledge of internal form of the object. On the basis of sense perception
, the knowledge of only external form of the physical world at superficial level will be possible.
Hume takes the knowledge in the sense of complete certainty, which can be said to be the
subject of belief only.
According to Hume, the suspicion keeps on rising in serious contemplation of anything, therefore
carelessness and not focusing attention on any subject is the only remedy of the skepticism.
The skepticism of Hume is not a radical skepticism.
Administrative Ethics
Ethics is an English word which has originated from the Greek word Ethicos which means
custom, mode or habit. Ethics is a systematic study of a custom, mode or habit. Custom, mode
or habit are the functions of man which he gets used to. The voluntary activities of man are
called the conduct. Ethics is an entire study of these voluntary activities / conducts.
Conducts can be studied in two ways –
1. How is man’s conducts in general?
2. How should man’s conducts be ?
The main function of ethics is – to examine the voluntary action of man and call them to be
moral – immoral or just – unjust.
Comprehensively, it can be said that the study of human activities as a means of getting bliss in
view of their being justifiable or injustifiable, is called the ethics.
Following dilemmas have been included in ethics –
1. How to lead a good life
2. Our rights and accountability
3. The language of right or wrong
4. Moral decision making
Kant
Kant’s Paralogism
As per the intellectualism or rationalism, knowledge is congenital or from birth. In other words,
knowledge lies in our intellect since birth, hence, our intellect is the source of all our knowl-
-edge.
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According to empiricism our sensory organs that is our experiences are the source of all knowl
-edge. At the time of birth, our knowledge is like a blank paper, that is , there is no knowledge
since birth.
Kant studied both the views for a long time. He thoughts over merits and demerits of both and
then removed the demerits of both and synthesized their merits. Thus, finally he propounded a
new principle of Paralogism.
Review of Intellectualism or Rationalism
Kant says it is justifiable for the intellectualism to say that the knowledge should be universal
and compulsory and it is not possible through experiences. It is also justifiable for the intellec-
-tualism to say that this part of the knowledge is inherent since birth. But the intellectualism’s
view that the experience contributes nothing in knowledge building is wrong. Such an intellec-
-tualistic knowledge ends in superstititon. If the sensory experience is neglected then knowl-
-edge cannot be increased. Hence, the contribution of experience in knowledge building is
necessary.
Review of Empircism –
The Empiricism’s saying that the intellect is like a clean slate at the time of birth, is not correct.
Such a complete negligence of the intellect results into the birth of the skepticism. In fact, the
Empiricism and Intellectualism have thrown the philosophy in the whirlpool of skepticism and
conservatism. Kant says that his objective is to take philosophy out of this whirlpool.
According to Kant both intellect and experience are must in the process of knowledge building. Both
are supplement of each other. If experience is blind then intellect is lame. As both the blind and
the lame need each other to cross the forest, similarly, in the field of knowledge the blending
of intellect and experience is necessarry.
Knowledge Building
Kant says that the impressions (experiences) gathered by our sensory organs from external
world, is the raw material. These impressions lie scattered, hotchpotch and meaningless. First
of all, they get themselves sealed of the two forms – space and time- situated in the intellect
then they are moulded into 12 patterns, which Kant puts in four categories – quantitative, quali-
-tative, relative and type – based and build various types of knowledge. Therefore, Kant terms
the experience as the subject matter of knowledge and the intellect as the form of the world.
According to Kant, both of these build our knowledge.
In other words, the Empiricism is of the nature of ant which gathers from outside. The
Intellectualism is of the nature of spider which forms the cobweb from within it. While, Kant’s
Paralogism is of the nature of honeybee which gather juice from outside but turns it into honey
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from within.
Hegel
According to Hegel, the important work of a philosopher is discovery of truth and interpreta-
-tion of its nature. Hegel’s philosophy is the peak of German Idealism. Giving importance to
faith in his philosophy, he limited the Intellectualism but the Intellectualism in Hegel’s philosophy
the intellectualism attains perfection crossing all limitations.
In place of practical wisdom, Hegel propounded intellectualism which resulted into Absolute
Idealism.
Hegel regarded intelligence as the final authority. Various true units existing in the world are
the expressions of intelligence. No object can be true outside the circumference of conscious-
-ness. Right from natural world to self conscious form of human, social institutions, art, religion
and philosophy are effulgent with the light of intelligence. Philosophy is the utmost goal of
objective-based process of the world. According to Hegel, the best expression of the supreme
element is in philosophy only. The sensations, experiences, resolution, talent, etc are various
stages of the knowledge. Ethics, art and religion are the primary stages of the philosophy.
According to Hegel the famous quote of Kant that ‘intellect builds nature’ is a revolutionary
ideology but Kant could not understand the meaning of this quote. According to Hegel, the
meaning of this quotation means that the natural world is sheer a preceding state of intellect
development.
Kant has drawn a dividing line between intellect and intelligence as per which intellect is an
ingredient based and intelligence is regulatory. But Hegel does nott approve this duality.
According to Hegel there is no difference between intellect and intelligence. Intelligence is
regulatory and factor based both.
Hegel’s Conflict Justice :
In historical point of view, the conflict justice theory is a decent and polite way of debating,
argumenting and discussion. In Hegel’s philosophy when thought develops from abstract and
imperfect stages to defined and meaningful stages, then it is called the conflict justice. It is
the process of entelechy which goes on as pro con and coordination until the stage of
perfection is achieved. The thought attains perfection through triple rule tertiary rule of favor,
opponent and coordination. In the peak of development a complete coordination is created
between knowledge and existence.
The tertiary rule of Hegel is an integral part of justice. It includes favor/ opponent, litigation,
protest and coordination/ dialogue. Both favor and opponent are mutually absolute because
they are imperfect in themselves and on accepting either of them its opponent element devel-
-ops, indicating its imperfection.Due to this contrary nature of each and every object the mo-
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tion, change and development keep on occurring in every unit of the creation. But nowhere in the
form of element, any absolute opposition is found. Due to this very nature the mutual coordi
nation of favor and opponent occurs. Apparently, the pro and con get situated in coordinated
form in synthesis.
This trinity of pro, con and coordination occurs frequently. This sequence may come to an end
only when the knowledge acquires such a form in its entirety and final stage may become the
last stage.
Thus, the contrary element inherent in every object is the basis of all changes and revolutions.
In this context this quotation of Hegel is remarkable – ‘ What is rational is real and what is real
is rational.’
Bradley
Bradley was the greatest absolute idealist philosopher of England. He was educated in England.
Bradely is a great metaphysic. He solved all the devices against metaphysics prevailing against
idealism and intellectualism. According to him, the metaphysics is an effort to understand the
absolute power away from the perceptions.
In other words, philosophy is an effort of the knowledge of the truth. It can be termed the study
of primary principles or final truths. The creation is not observed in parts but an effort is made
to understand it in its entirety.
Although Bradley is not a follower of omniscient ideology yet he does does not believe that
the knowledge of truth is impossible. It is in a way to deny the power of absolute element to say
that we cannot know the absolute element.
According to Bradley an intellectual being cannot escape from the knowledge of truth whether
it is possible or impossible, whether it is useful or useless. It is a natural tendency of man. In
fact a human being is imperfect and limited but naturally he is in compulsion to violtate his
limitations. Bradley says that an irrepressible desire is found in every limited unit to violate its
limitations. Bradley says that the existence is beyond knowledge.This quotation is sufficient to
make an opponent of metaphysics becomes a metaphysic. In his work Perception and Truth the
one which is full of inner conflicts is a perception and the one which is devoid of inner con-
-flicts is absolute truth.
G.E. Moore
Realism / Objectivism
The objectivism believes in the power of objects. Whether we have the knowledge of objects
or not, they have their independent existence. The realism criticizes these philosophers who
take away the independent existence of the objects and declare it only and idea. This theory
came to be known as realism due to believing the existence of objects as real.
Characteristics :
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1. Independent existence of object
2. Attributes in object – All the attributes which we experience are in objects. They do not
depend on the calm or infinite mental state.
3. Attributes of object unaffected from knowledge – If some object is the subject of our knowl-
-edge then it does not make any difference in the attributes of the object.
4. Direct knowledge of object – the knowledge of objects is direct.
5. Universality of object – All the persons have same knowledge of an object. Or several persons
can get the same knowledge of an object.
Analytic Philosophy :
G.E. Moore was a British philosopher. He was the supporter of realism / objectivism and sharp
critic of idealism. He propounded a new stream of philosophy in Cambridge – Analytic
Philosophy.
Meaning of Analysis :
We analyse anything so that we can understand it well. We can call it ‘to open to understand’.
Therefore, we divide the thing in small parts and then we study these parts separately. At the
same time we also see that how these parts are related to each other. By doing so that object
appear in its original form.
Meaning of Philosophical Analysis :
If we analyse the philosophical language, then it will be called philosophical analysis, which
according to Moore can be made in two ways –
1. Clarification and determination of meaning of words used in philosophy.
2. Clarification of philosophical ideals and sentences
Exposition of Realism
Moore says an object as an independent and self existent power. That is, whether we see an
object or not the object has its own existence.
According to Moore any manifestation has two things – firstly, the object which exists in the
external world and secondly, its impression which stays in our mental world that is in our
consciousness.
Pregmetism
Charles S. Peirce is the Father of American Pregmetism but the credit to its propagation chiefly
goes to William James and John Dewey.
The root word of Pregmetism is Greek word ‘pregma’ which means action. The words ‘practice’
and ‘practical’ have been derived from this very word.
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Pregmetism is the philosophical theory which regards the practical welfare as the parameter
of truth. For believing utility as the parameter of truth, it is called utilitarianism. Since it gives
more importance to the result of a work, it is also called teleology.
Characteristics :
1. Realistic view
2. A middle way between idealism and objectivism
3. A middle way between materialism and idealism
4. Importance to action
5. Special emphasis on result
6. Importance of Man
John Dewey
Instrumentalism
In his ideas of epistemology, Dewey criticizes intellectualism and empiricism both. According
to Dewey, the biggest mistake of both of these is that they think human beings as sheer spec-
-tators and says man does not discover anything in reflecting. Nor can man discover anything
because truth is neither situated in intellect nor in any external thing. Truth is built and this is
built by our intellect, examining its circumstances and environment.
According to Dewey reflection and action should go on together. The reflection which goes on
away from practical problems, is futile. The right thinking emerges amidst the problems. Dewey
regards knowledge as an instrument. This is what is his instrumentalism.
Practical Empiricism :
1. We should test the authenticity of any experience or fact on the basis of experiment in
practical life.
2. We can come know the nature or form of any object on the basis of the experiments done on
it.
3. Our education and knowledge should not be either to collect or to repeat them, instead we
should grasp it as action. Dewey’s opinion is that knowledge grows by doing work.
Truth and Value :
Truth is one which is useful for human life. Truth is the existence of God when it is useful for
someone. Values are never stable and forever. Our intellect creates truth in the same way as
examining in environment, it builds values. Still Dewey accpets that the value should not ever
be changing. There should be some stability in it. We should take care lest it should become an
orthodoxy.
A. J. Ayer
Logical Positivism :
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The philosophy of logical positivism started in the first half of 20th century. This philosophy
is also known as logical empiricism or scientific empiricism. Positivist view is such a view
which wants to keep the idea limited to experiential element does not allow to take resort to
the things beyond experience or imaginary flights. According to it, the thoughts should be
based on facts. The knowledge of facts is not possible through sheer sciences. Hence, he
believes that philosophical thinking should stand on the strong base of science.The philosophy
which tries to draw picture of entirety of the world is useless because no such influence is
based on experience or science.
Verifiability Criterion of Meaning
This theory presents such a parameter which can distinguish between meaningfulness and meaning-
-lessness of the sentences. The sentences are formed when the words are arranged as per the
grammatical rules. But something is being said or informed through the sentences, that is,
informative sentence can be termed as the statement, regardlessly of its being meaningful or
not.
Any statement can be verbally meaningful when it is either analytical or it can be examined on
the basis of experience. It means that statement can be meaningful for some person only when
he knows what the statement wants to convey or express and how it will be tested. For example,
we say that that book is in the other room. Now we know in which type of probable experience
its truthfulness or untruthfulness will be proved. On this basis this sentence can be said
meaningful.Now we say that George V is the square root of virtue. Now we cannot imagine any
such experience which can verify this sentence to be true or untrue. Hence, it is not a state-
-ment. It is a psuedo statement. It is meaningless as it does not say anything.
On the basis of verifiability criterion of meaning, Ayer tried to repeal the metaphysics. He did
analysis of God exists. At the same time, he explained what the function of philosophy is and
what is not the work of philosophy.
Jean-Paul Sartre
Existentialism :
The existentialism is a philosophical theory which reflects on the existence of human being.
The situations of human beings, their future, their qualities, etc come in existence of human
being.
According to John Maciver, ‘First and clear characteristic is that the departure point of this
style is man not nature.’ It is not an action but philosophy of a doer.
Characteristics :
1. Importance of human being : The most important characteristic of existentialism is that it
made human existence as the subject of its contemplation. According to it, the philosophy
which isolates man from his situations and his relations and makes him indifferent, is condem-
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-nable.
2. Accepting existence before essence : Existentialists accept existence preceding its
essence. According to Sartre – ‘ We mean that first of all human being comes into existence.
He comes face to face to himself and gets active in the world. Later, he defines himself.
3. Freedom : Declaring existence of man preceding its essence, while the existentialist
philosophers want to say that human fate or destiny is not a given thing, or there is no God who
is its creator. There we also believe that a human being creates his future, his present and his
destiny by his liberty and freedom of resolution. Existentialist Sartre gives so much importance
to freedom of human being that according to him human being is cursed to be free.
4. … : The existentialists regard human being as a … creature. According to them instead of
contemplating on god, soul, time, etc, a human being should focus on his personal, current and
practical problem.
5. Philosophy of Trust: Existentialism is a philosophy of trust. Against the intellect Kierkegaard
says – Blessed is the person who, shunning the use of intellect, resolve to make the life easy by
overall simplicity and commitment of heart.’
Jean-Paul Sartre
Instead of expressing his thoughts in philosophical scriptures, Sartre has expressed
them in stories, columns, novels, plays, etc. Most of his works were written in restau-
-rant, therefore, his philosophy is called Cafe Philosophy.
Thoughts of Sartre :
1. Existence Sartre : Sartre believes – the existence is of two types gross and con-
-sciousness for which he uses the words ‘ exists in itself’ and ‘exists for itself’. ‘Exists
for itself’ is the existence of human beings who are imperfect. They are future oriented.
This future of theirs is empty which they have to fill up by their desires, selection and
decisions. On the contrary ‘ exists in itself’ that is the existence of gross matter is full of self
and self dependent.
2. Consciousness : According to Sartre the consciousness is always related to some
thing or the other. Consciousness is the consciousness of the object but it is not an
object itslef. Consciousness always depends on the object, while the object has its
independent existence.
3. God : Sartre is an atheistic existentialist. He regards Nitze as his preceptor who
declared that God is dead. Sartre says – It is good for God to be dead. Now we
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cannot throw responsiblilty on anyone in this Godless world.
7 Principles of Public Life :
Unselfishness : The government work should be done in public interest. The govern-
-ment personnel should not work for their family members, friends only.
Integrity : The government employees should not be allowed to be under obligation
of any financial persons or any such external persons or organization or others who
are with the purpose of affecting the government work. Avoiding the use of govern-
-ment office for personal work.
Objectivity : In recommending persons for meeting people, giving contract, awards
and other benefits including selection of government employees on the basis of mer
its-demerits for doing government work.
Accountability : The government employees will be accountable to the people for his
decisions and works. (For the constitution)
Openness / Transparency : They should tell the cause of the decisions taken by
them. The information should be stopped when it is widely in public interest.
Honesty : The public servant should be honest.
Corruption
Corruption is a deviation from the parameters of sincerity. Corruption is deliberately a
direct or indirect misuse (on purpose) of one’s position, office or resource for one’s
individual interest, whether it is for economic benefit, or power or prestige or increase
of influence.
The corruption includes not only black marketing, bribery, nepotism, misuse of power
or influence, profiteering and the like but also it shows lack of sincerity in misappro-
-priation of government wealth which otherwise is nothing but corruption. The word
corruption can be defined comprehensively in many ways.
In the Anti-corruption Act, no definition of corruption is given. It has enlisted various
crimes which have been termed corruption. The list of such activities issued by the
Central Vigilance Commission is given as under –
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1. Asking for or accepting reward in addition to the legal salary for any official work or
using influence on any government employee.
2. Receiving any valuable thing without paying its price or paying inadequately from
any such peron who has or may have some official work or with whom his subordi-
-nates have some official conducts, or where he can use his influence.
3. Receiving any valuable thing or economic benefit for himself or for any other person
through corrupt or illegal way or he may misuse the position of a government employee for
himself.
4. Owning assets more than the known sources of the income.
5. The cases of embezzlement, forgery, treachery or other criminal cases.
Causes of Corruption :
1. Historical cause : British background- low salary, refusing promotion, corruption.
2. Economic cause : Rise in maintenance of life expenditure, greed of getting prestige
by forfeiting property.
3. Lack of strict governance.
4. Complicated procedures of the government offices
5. Inadequate laws.
6. Protection given to government employees
7. Collusion of traders, industrialists, millionaires for serving individual purpose.
Provisions for Preventing Corruption –
1. Anti -corruption Act – 1947
2. Seizing the properties obtained through corrupt means
3. Central Vigilance Commission
4. CBI
5. Lokpal / Public Commissioner + Others
Whistleblower : The whistleblower denotes the person who reveals illegal or deep
secrets kept hidden carefully in some organization. Daniel Ellsberg worked as whistleblower
in so called Pentagon Papers. Pentagon is the headquarters of American army and paper
is the confidential papers of the army. A prolonged trial of it went on and he had to
undergo a lot of trouble. Since then the whisleblowing was not only provided adequate
security but it was also promoted as a part of duty of citiznes. It may be noted here that
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whistleblowing implies revealing the information kept illegally hidden about illegal works.
The biggest example of insecurity in revealing something which is going on illegally is
death of two promising Indians. Manjunath Sambhugam was employee of IOC and
Satyendra Dubey was an employee of NHAT.
Britain, Australia, America and New Zealand have such laws which give protection to
whistleblowers. In its 179th report the Law Commission had introduced the Public
Interest Disclosure Bill which provides following protection to the whistleblowers.
1. Ensuring confidentiality and unknown identity of the whistleblower and providing
him security by protecting him from falling victim to oppression in the organization.
2. Providing him convenience to demand transfer.
3. Safeguarding his career possibility
4. The act of retaliation should be considered criminal.
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